First Thesis: Historical Support for the Bible

The question of the “originals” of the Holy Scriptures frequently arises during my lectures on biblical topics.

To illustrate the concept of an “original” document, consider the manuscript of the United States Declaration of Independence, signed by John Hancock. This historical document is currently housed in the National Archives[1], specifically in the Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom. Adjacent to Hancock’s signature are those of future presidents Thomas Jefferson and John Adams, along with other prominent figures such as Benjamin Franklin—individuals whose names have been etched into history through the events surrounding the Declaration. Despite the passage of time since July 4, 1776, when they signed the document, their signatures remain faintly visible. This is due to the rudimentary conservation techniques available at the time.

This document serves as a clear example of what we can rightfully call an “original.” Why? Because its chain of custody has been meticulously preserved and documented. A comprehensive record exists detailing the document’s origin, previous custodians, storage conditions, restorations, and more. This rigorous documentation allows us to confidently refer to it as the “original” Declaration of Independence.

In contrast, while biblical manuscripts are of immense historical and theological significance, we lack the kind of uninterrupted chain of custody that would allow us to assert, for example, that a particular scroll is the original Book of Genesis written by Moses. This uncertainty is due to several factors. First, the common materials used by ancient scribes—parchment and vellum—are highly susceptible to deterioration from light, moisture, and handling, unless carefully preserved. Second, we do not possess a verified handwriting sample of Moses to compare with any manuscript. These issues are not unique to biblical texts; they affect all literary works from antiquity. For instance, how do we verify the authenticity of a manuscript of Homer’s Iliad? Even if a papyrus were found and accurately dated to the time Homer is believed to have lived, we would still need to demonstrate that the handwriting is genuinely his.

Does this mean the Bible is discredited because we do not possess its original manuscripts? Absolutely not. If that were the standard, then the entirety of human literary heritage—spanning more than five millennia—would also be invalidated.

In An Introduction to Research in English Literary History, Chauncey Sanders, a respected authority in the field of documentary research, outlines three foundational principles of historiography[2] and paleography[3] that are crucial for evaluating ancient texts:

• The Bibliographic Test: This test assesses the reliability of copies of an ancient document. It compares various reproductions, often across different languages, to establish textual accuracy. While God inspired the authors of Scripture, the process of copying was not divinely protected from human error. The more copies available, the better, as this enables comparative analysis to determine textual lineage and proximity to the original. The closer a manuscript is in date to the time of its original composition, the greater its evidentiary value.
• The Internal Test: This test seeks to identify and understand discrepancies among copies. It evaluates whether variations stem from unintentional errors, deliberate alterations, or natural developments in language and grammar over time.
• The Test of External Evidence: This principle involves corroborating a document’s content through other independent sources or archaeological findings. Such external validation helps verify the historical reliability of the events or details described in the manuscript under examination.

I will apply these three critical tests—bibliographic, internal, and external—first to the New Testament and then to the Old Testament, to demonstrate that the Bible, despite its antiquity, faithfully preserves the words originally written by the prophets. There are only two notable exceptions: first, the Bible we read today has been translated into English; and second, it is rendered in contemporary language to ensure clarity and accessibility.

To illustrate how language evolves over time, consider The Canterbury Tales, the magnum opus of the English poet Geoffrey Chaucer[4]. First composed around 1400, this work, when compared with a modern edition, reveals striking changes in vocabulary, spelling, grammar, and syntax[5].

The bibliographical proof of the New Testament. In Harvest of Hellenism: A History of the Near East from Alexander the Great to the Triumph of Christianity, Francis Edward Peters, Emeritus Professor of History at New York University (nyu), affirms:

Based on the manuscript tradition alone, the works that made up the Christian’s New Testament were the most frequently copied and widely circulated books of antiquity.

This statement underscores the exceptional preservation of the New Testament. Its authenticity is rooted in the extraordinary number of manuscript copies that serve as textual witnesses, attesting to the original sources. These manuscripts, preserved over centuries, reflect the careful transmission of the biblical text.

There are over 5,686 Greek manuscripts—either complete or partial—of the New Testament. These were hand-copied from the late first century through the invention of the printing press in the 15th century. The abundance of these manuscripts allows scholars to compare versions, trace textual variants, and identify the most accurate representations of the original texts.

Beginning in the third century, the New Testament was translated into several major languages of the ancient world: Coptic, Syriac, and Latin.

Among these, Latin had the greatest influence in the Western world. The Latin Vulgate[6], translated by Saint Jerome[7] in 382, became the authoritative version for many centuries[8]. Today, there are more than 10,000 surviving manuscripts of the Vulgate.

In total, including manuscripts in other languages, there are over 20,000 known manuscript copies of the New Testament—either in full or in part. This unparalleled abundance strengthens confidence in the text’s authenticity and provides a robust foundation for textual comparison and historical verification.

To appreciate the manuscript wealth of the New Testament, consider Homer’s Iliad—the most widely known and copied classical Greek text. There are only 643 surviving manuscript copies of the Iliad. The earliest fragment, dating to approximately ad 150, consists of 16 Greek pages and is currently displayed in the British Library. The earliest complete manuscript of the Iliad does not appear until the 13th century, over 2,000 years after its original composition.

This comparison highlights the unique position of the New Testament in textual history: no other ancient document is as comprehensive and closely preserved.

Another important early version of the Bible is the Syriac Peshitta, a translation directly from the Hebrew scriptures. Produced around the second century, the Peshitta played a significant role in the transmission of the biblical text in the East. Over 350 manuscript copies of the Peshitta, dating from the fifth century onward, still exist today.

The accompanying chart (with approximate dates and ages) describes in greater detail the fate of various ancient works, including the Old and New Testament manuscripts:

It is important to recognize that not all ancient documents carry the same value or weight. A small fragment cannot be placed on the same level as a complete manuscript. The age and significance of such documents are determined through various factors, including the color and texture of the ink and parchment, the style and shape of the letters, the presence of ornamentation, the use of punctuation, textual divisions, and the materials employed in their creation. These physical and stylistic features help scholars establish not only the approximate age of a manuscript but also its origin and reliability. With these criteria in mind, we can examine some of the most notable biblical manuscripts based on their antiquity, physical condition, and degree of completeness at the time they were discovered.

• The Rylands Library Papyrus, also known as P52 or “The Fragment of Saint John,” is the earliest known New Testament manuscript. Dated to around ad 125 and preserved at the John Rylands Library in Manchester, this small papyrus fragment contains a portion of the Gospel of John—verses 18:31–33 on the front and 18:37–38 on the back. Despite its brevity, its early date makes it a crucial witness to the existence and circulation of the Gospel narrative within decades of its composition.
• The Codex Sinaiticus, discovered by Constantin von Tischendorf in 1844 at the Monastery of Saint Catherine at Mount Sinai, dates to approximately ad Written in Greek, this codex includes nearly all the New Testament along with a significant portion of the Old Testament (in its Septuagint form). It is now housed in the British Library in London and remains one of the most complete and valuable biblical manuscripts from antiquity. It is also available for public viewing online at www.codexsinaiticus.org.
• The Codex Vaticanus, preserved in the Vatican Library and documented as early as 1475, is another foundational biblical manuscript from the fourth century. Written in Greek, it contains nearly the entire Old Testament and the majority of the New Testament. Its early dating, exceptional quality, and textual consistency make it a cornerstone document in the study of biblical transmission.
• The Codex Alexandrinus, dating to the fifth century, was presented to King Charles i of England by the Patriarch of Constantinople in 1627 and is now located in the British Library in London. Written in Greek, it contains an almost complete version of the Old Testament (Septuagint) and the full New Testament. Of the three great codices, Alexandrinus is the most complete and remains a vital reference point for biblical scholars analyzing early Christian texts.

The test of the New Testament’s external evidence. Bishop Eusebius of Caesarea is often regarded as the “Father of Church History” for his foundational work in documenting the early centuries of Christianity. His Ecclesiastical History, likely written in the early third century, provides the earliest comprehensive account of the development of the Christian Church. In this work, Eusebius references several writings from earlier Church figures, including letters by Bishop Papias of Hierapolis, an Apostolic Father whose works are dated to around ad 130. He wrote:

Mark, having been the interpreter of Peter, wrote accurately, though not in order, all that he remembered of the things said or done by the Lord. For he had neither heard the Lord nor been his follower, but afterward, as I said, he was the follower of Peter, who gave his instructions as circumstances demanded, but not as one giving an orderly account of the words of the Lord. So that Mark was not at fault in writing certain things as he remembered them. For he was concerned with only one thing, not to omit anything of the things he had heard, and not to record any untruth in regard to them. (Book iii: xxxix ,15)

Irenaeus of Lyons, known as Saint Irenaeus, wrote:

For, since there are four zones of the world in which we live, and four principal winds … the Artificer of all … has given us the Gospel under four aspects but bound together by one Spirit.

Matthew also issued a written Gospel among the Hebrews in their own dialect, while Peter and Paul were preaching at Rome, and laying the foundations of the Church. After their departure, Mark, the disciple and interpreter of Peter, also handed down to us in writing what had been preached by Peter. Luke also, the companion of Paul, recorded in a book the Gospel preached by him. Afterwards, John, the disciple of the Lord, who also had leaned upon His breast, did himself publish a Gospel during his residence at Ephesus in Asia. (Against Heresies Bk. 3.11.8)

Additional external sources worth consulting are the historical accounts written by contemporaries of Jesus.

Cornelius Tacitus, born around ad 55 in Gallia Narbonensis—a Roman province at the time—rose to become one of the most prominent historians of the Roman Empire. He served as both consul and provincial governor, earning a reputation for his sharp political insight and literary precision. Among his various works, his most notable contributions are the Annals and the Histories, which chronicle the reigns of Roman emperors and significant events of the early imperial period. In the Annals, Tacitus makes a noteworthy declaration:

Consequently, to get rid of the report, Nero fastened the guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their abominations, called Christians by the populace. Christus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilatus, and a most mischievous superstition, thus checked for the moment, again broke out not only in Judea, the first source of the evil, but even in Rome, where all things hideous and shameful from every part of the world find their center and become popular. (Book 15,44)

The “most mischievous superstition” is a possible reference to the resurrection of Jesus.

Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius, was a Roman historian and biographer active during the reigns of Emperors Trajan and Hadrian. A member of Pliny the Younger’s intellectual circle, Suetonius, later served in Hadrian’s imperial court until a series of disagreements led to his dismissal. His most significant work, De Vita Caesarum (The Lives of the Caesars), chronicles the lives of the Roman emperors from Julius Caesar to Domitian. In his biography of Emperor Claudius, Suetonius confirms an event also recorded in Acts 18:2: “Since the Jews constantly made disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus, he [Claudius] expelled them from Rome.” This likely refers to early conflicts between Jewish communities and followers of Christ (Chrestus being a variant of Christus). In his account of Emperor Nero, Suetonius references the persecution that followed the Great Fire of Rome: “Punishment was inflicted on the Christians, a class of people given to a new and mischievous superstition.” The phrase “new and mischievous superstition” is widely understood to refer to belief in Jesus’ resurrection—a core tenet of early Christianity.

Flavius Josephus, born in ad 37 in Jerusalem as Joseph ben Matityahu, was a Jewish historian of priestly and royal Hasmonean descent. A highly educated and prolific writer, he composed Jewish Antiquities in Greek between ad 93 and 94. This twenty-volume work sought to present a complete history of the Jewish people, from Creation to the outbreak of the Jewish revolt against Rome in ad 66. Among his many references to figures and events mentioned in the New Testament, three are especially significant. One such reference concerns James the Just, the son of Alphaeus[9] and author of the New Testament epistle bearing his name (not to be confused with James, the son of Zebedee). Josephus mentions James in a passage that highlights his role as a key figure in the early Christian community. He wrote:

Ananus was of this disposition, he thought he had now a proper opportunity [to exercise his authority]. Festus was now dead, and Albinus was but upon the road; so he assembled the Sanhedrim of judges, and brought before them the brother of Jesus, who was called Christ, whose name was James, and some others, [or, some of his companions]; and when he had formed an accusation against them as breakers of the law, he delivered them to be stoned. (Book 20,9)

The second mention is about John the Baptist:

Now some of the Jews thought that the destruction of Herod’s army came from God, and that very justly, as a punishment of what he did against John, that was called the Baptist: for Herod slew him, who was a good man, and commanded the Jews to exercise virtue, both as to righteousness towards one another, and piety towards God, and so to come to baptism …. Now when [many] others came in crowds about him, for they were very greatly moved [or pleased] by hearing his words, Herod, who feared lest the great influence John had over the people might put it into his power and inclination to raise a rebellion, (for they seemed ready to do anything he should advise,) thought it best, by putting him to death, to prevent any mischief he might cause, and not bring himself into difficulties, by sparing a man who might make him repent of it when it would be too late. Accordingly, he was sent a prisoner, out of Herod’s suspicious temper, to Macherus, the castle I before mentioned, and was there put to death. (Book 18,5)

And the last mention is about Jesus himself:

Now there was about this time Jesus, a wise man, if it be lawful to call him a man; for he was a doer of wonderful works, a teacher of such men as receive the truth with pleasure. He drew over to him both many of the Jews and many of the Gentiles. He was [the] Christ. And when Pilate, at the suggestion of the principal men amongst us, had condemned him to the cross, those that loved him at the first did not forsake him; for he appeared to them alive again the third day; as the divine prophets had foretold these and ten thousand other wonderful things concerning him. And the tribe of Christians, so named from him, are not extinct at this day. (Book 18,3)

According to a study published in International Geology Review, Volume 54, Issue 15 (2012[10]), geologist Jefferson Williams of Supersonic Geophysical, along with colleagues Markus Schwab and Achim Brauer from the German Research Center for Geosciences, conducted an in-depth analysis of the subsoil beneath the beach at Ein Gedi, located on the western shore of the Dead Sea. Their research uncovered deformed sediment layers, which provide geological evidence of at least two significant seismic events that impacted the region. The first was an earthquake dated to bc 31, while the second occurred sometime between ad 26 and 36. Notably, this second event aligns chronologically with the earthquake described in Matthew 27 of the New Testament, which is said to have occurred at the moment of Jesus’ crucifixion.

The bibliographic proof of the Old Testament. The number of surviving Old Testament manuscripts is significantly smaller than that of New Testament manuscripts. Nevertheless, when compared to other ancient writings, Old Testament manuscripts are remarkably abundant. The relative scarcity of complete Old Testament scrolls can be attributed to two primary factors. First, the materials used—typically parchment or papyrus—were not durable enough to withstand the passage of two to three millennia without considerable deterioration. Second, it was common scribal practice to destroy the original manuscript once a new, corrected copy was made to replace the aging and damaged text. This practice was motivated by a deep reverence for the sacredness of the Scriptures, ensuring that only pristine copies were preserved and used.

Although the Old Testament is not fully extant in its original Hebrew form, it survives in thousands of fragments and in numerous translations, such as the Greek Septuagint and the Syriac Peshitta. Unlike the New Testament, which is preserved in a wealth of complete manuscripts, our access to the Old Testament rests on these partial sources. Yet the absence of original-language manuscripts dating close to the time of authorship does not prevent us from reliably reconstructing the original words. One of the strongest forms of bibliographical evidence is the extraordinary care and reverence with which ancient Jewish communities preserved and transmitted their sacred texts.

This deep devotion is reflected in the Talmud[11], a comprehensive compilation of Jewish oral tradition developed from the time of Moses and formally recorded beginning in the second century. The Talmud outlines the meticulous rules that scribes were required to follow when copying the sacred Scriptures. These regulations included strict protocols regarding letter formation, spacing, materials, and even the ceremonial purity of the scribe. Such rigorous standards offer strong assurance that the transmission of the Old Testament was carried out with exceptional precision and dedication across generations. This is an example:

A synagogue roll must be written on the skins of clean animals, prepared for the particular use of the synagogue by a Jew. These must be fastened together with strings taken from clean animals. Every skin must contain a certain number of columns, equal throughout the entire codex. The length of each column must not extend over less than 48 or more than 60 lines; and the breadth must consist of thirty letters. The whole copy must be first-lined; and if three words be written without a line, it is worthless. The ink should be black, neither red, green, nor any other color, and be prepared according to a definite recipe. An authentic copy must be the exemplar, from which the transcriber ought not in the least deviate. No word or letter, not even a yod, must be written from memory, the scribe not having looked at the codex before him…. Between every consonant the space of a hair or thread must intervene; between every new parashah, or section, the breadth of nine consonants; between every book, three lines. The fifth book of Moses must terminate exactly with a line; but the rest need not do so. Besides this, the copyist must sit in full Jewish dress, wash his whole body, not begin to write the name of God with a pen newly dipped in ink, and should a king address him while writing that name he must take no notice of him.

These were the rules that each of the 304,805 letters of the Pentateuch (the first five books of the Old Testament written by Moses) had to be copied according to.

Among the many Old Testament manuscripts discovered over time, several stand out for their remarkable state of preservation, completeness, and historical significance.

• The Dead Sea Scrolls—also known as the Qumran Scrolls—represent one of the most significant archaeological finds related to biblical history. Before their discovery, the oldest complete Hebrew Old Testament in our possession was the Aleppo Codex, dated to ad 930, while the oldest complete Greek copy was the Codex Sinaiticus from around ad Prior to these, only scattered fragments in Hebrew and other languages were available, leaving scholars with little ability to assess the fidelity of these copies to the original texts. The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls between 1947 and 2017 in the caves near Qumran, along the western shore of the Dead Sea, transformed this landscape. Comprising roughly 40,000 fragments and several dozen complete scrolls—many non-biblical—the collection includes about five hundred reconstructed texts[12]. One of the most significant among them is the complete Book of Isaiah (designated 1qisa), dating to around bc 125. When scholars compared this manuscript to the Masoretic text from ad 930, they found only minor discrepancies: of the 166 words in Isaiah 53, only seventeen letters differed—ten were simple copyist errors that did not affect meaning, four were stylistic variations, and three involved the addition of the word “light” in verse 11, a term that also appears in some earlier Greek manuscripts. This extraordinary textual consistency across a millennium strongly supports the reliability and preservation of the Old Testament.
• The Aleppo Codex, dated to ad 930, is the earliest known manuscript of the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible) and is considered the most authoritative exemplar of the Masoretic tradition. Written in Hebrew, it reflects the work of the Masoretes—Jewish scribes who succeeded earlier scribes in Tiberias and Jerusalem between the 7th and 10th centuries. Their name derives from the Hebrew word masoret, meaning “tradition,” underscoring their role in preserving and standardizing the text of the Hebrew Scriptures. Tragically, the codex is now incomplete. During the anti-Jewish riots in Aleppo on December 2, 1947, Arab rioters destroyed numerous synagogues, including the 1,500-year-old Mustaribah Synagogue, where the Aleppo Codex had been safeguarded.
• The Leningrad Codex belongs to the same Masoretic tradition as the Aleppo Codex and is currently the oldest complete manuscript of the Hebrew Bible. It was written in Cairo around ad 1010 and is now housed in the Russian National Library in St. Petersburg. Like the Aleppo Codex, it features vocalization—the inclusion of vowels—added by the Masoretes to preserve accurate pronunciation and interpretation. Since ancient Hebrew was originally written using only consonants and had fallen out of spoken use by the 4th or 5th century, the addition of vowels became essential. These vowels were inserted with markings to indicate that they were editorial additions and not part of the original consonantal text. The Leningrad Codex remains a critical reference for modern editions of the Hebrew Bible and is widely used in biblical scholarship today.

In bc 587, Nebuchadnezzar ii, king of Babylon, invaded the Kingdom of Judah, destroyed Solomon’s Temple, and carried off the political, religious, and cultural elites into captivity. This period of Babylonian exile lasted for approximately fifty years. In bc 538, the Persian king Cyrus the Great issued a decree that allowed the exiled Jewish families to return to their homeland. However, during their exile, the Jews had become dispersed throughout regions where Greek and Aramaic were the dominant languages. Over time, Greek emerged as the prevailing language of commerce, education, and public life among many Jewish communities in the diaspora, particularly in Egypt.

This linguistic shift created a compelling need to translate the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek. The task of producing this translation was initiated under Ptolemy ii Philadelphus, who ruled Egypt in the third century bc. Desiring to include the Jewish Scriptures in the Library of Alexandria, one of the ancient world’s greatest centers of learning, Ptolemy commissioned his royal librarian, Demetrius of Phalerum, to oversee the translation. According to the Letter of Aristeas, Demetrius delegated the task to Aristeas, an Alexandrian Jew, who traveled to Jerusalem to select seventy-two elders—six from each of the twelve tribes of Israel—to perform the translation.

The translation was completed in seventy-two days, after which it was read publicly to the Jewish[13] community in Alexandria, who affirmed its accuracy and sanctity. This Greek translation came to be known as the Septuagint, from the Latin septuaginta (meaning “seventy”), often abbreviated as lxx, in reference to the seventy or seventy-two translators.

The significance of the Septuagint cannot be overstated. It is cited over 250 times in the New Testament, including in the words of Jesus Himself, underscoring its authoritative status among early Christians. Moreover, many of the most important Old Testament manuscripts we possess today—such as the Codex Alexandrinus, Codex Sinaiticus, and Codex Vaticanus—are copies of the Septuagint, not the original Hebrew texts.

When assessed using the bibliographical test, the Old Testament demonstrates remarkable reliability. This is evident in the meticulous care with which Hebrew scribes preserved and transmitted the text, the extensive number of surviving manuscripts, and the relatively short time span between the composition of the original texts and our earliest extant copies. The tradition of textual preservation, combined with the widespread use and early citation of the Septuagint, affirms the enduring authenticity of the Old Testament Scriptures.

The test of the external evidence of the Old Testament. Archaeology has made invaluable contributions to affirming the historical reliability of the Old Testament by uncovering external evidence that corroborates biblical narratives. Recent excavations near the southern end of the Dead Sea—close to the region historically known as the Valley of Sidim—have identified what is believed to be the ancient location of Sodom and Gomorrah. The site aligns precisely with the geographical descriptions found in the Bible. Multiple stratified layers of earth appear to have been violently disrupted and hurled into the air, suggesting that the cities were obliterated by a cataclysmic seismic event. Notably, the region’s abundance of bituminous tar supports the biblical account in Genesis 19, which describes fire and brimstone raining down upon the city.

Between 1930 and 1937, archaeologist John Garstang led an extensive excavation of ancient Jericho. His findings are meticulously documented in The Foundations of Bible History: Joshua, Judges. Among his most striking discoveries was evidence that the city’s walls had collapsed outward—a phenomenon unheard of, as city walls typically fall inward when breached. Garstang remarked:

As to the main fact, then, there remains no doubt: the walls fell outwards so completely that the attackers would be able to clamber up and over their ruins into the city. Why is it so unusual? Because the walls of cities do not fall outwards, they fall inwards. And yet in Joshua 6,20 we read, ‘The wall fell flat. Then the people went up into the city, every man straight before him, and they took the city.’ The walls were made to fall outward.

Additional archaeological findings have shed light on the early monarchy of Israel. Saul, the first king, was born in the hill country of Judah, southeast of Hebron, at the stronghold of Gibeah. Excavations in the region reveal that slingshots[14] (or sling weapons) were among the most prominent armaments of the era. This discovery reinforces not only the biblical depiction of David’s triumph over Goliath in 1 Samuel 17:49, but also the account in Judges 20:16, which records:

There were seven hundred chosen men among them who were left-handed. Each of them could sling a stone at a hair and never miss.

Further west, between modern-day Jerusalem and Tel Aviv, lies Tell Gezer—known simply as Gezer during the reign of Solomon[15]. Excavations conducted in 1969 revealed a layer of ash covering most of the city’s mound. The site yielded Hebrew, Egyptian, and Canaanite artifacts, indicating the concurrent presence of these cultures, precisely as described in 1 Kings 9:16–17:

Pharaoh, the king of Egypt, had gone up and captured Gezer. He burned it down and killed the Canaanites who were living there. He gave it as a dowry to his daughter, Solomon’s wife. Solomon then rebuilt Gezer.

During the archaeological campaign launched in 2012 at the ancient city of Khirbet Qeiyafa, a remarkable discovery was made in 2015: a ceramic vessel bearing a rare inscription dating back 3,000 years. The inscription mentions Eshbaʽal Ben Saul, a figure known from biblical tradition as the son of King Saul and a ruler of Israel during the early tenth century bc. This finding provides a significant link between archaeology and the biblical narrative recorded in the Second Book of Samuel, particularly chapters 3 and 4, which recount the complex political and dynastic struggles following Saul’s death. The appearance of the name “Eshbaʽal” on a contemporaneous artifact is especially notable, as it lends historical weight to figures previously known only through scripture.

The city of Shechem—modern-day Nablus, located in the West Bank—boasts a long and layered history. Founded approximately 4,000 years ago in the land of Canaan, Shechem became the first capital of the northern Kingdom of Israel and was associated with the tribe of Manasseh. Its ruins lie about two kilometers east of present-day Nablus and have revealed evidence of the city being destroyed and rebuilt up to twenty-two times, before being firmly reestablished in bc 200.

Due to its strategic location in the central hill country of ancient Canaan, Shechem served as a critical commercial hub, trading primarily in grapes, olives, and barley. The Bible frequently references Shechem as a sacred and historical site. In Genesis 12:6, it is recorded that Abram journeyed through the land to Shechem, to the oak of Moreh, at a time when the Canaanites inhabited the region. Later, in Genesis 35:4, the patriarch Jacob is described burying all foreign gods and earrings “under the oak near Shechem,” symbolizing a purification ritual and covenantal renewal.

Shechem also holds significance in the New Testament. In his speech recorded in Acts 7:15–16, Stephen, the first Christian martyr, mentions that Jacob and the patriarchs, after dying in Egypt, were brought back and buried in Shechem, in the tomb that Abraham had purchased from the sons of Hamor. This burial narrative further links Shechem to the patriarchal heritage and to the early Christian understanding of divine providence across generations.

Moreover, Joshua 24:32 reinforces Shechem’s role in Israel’s collective memory:

The bones of Joseph, that the Israelites had brought up out of Egypt, were buried in Shechem in the parcel of land that Jacob had bought for one hundred pieces of silver from the sons of Hamor, who himself was the father of Shechem. It was an inheritance for the descendants of Joseph.[16]

The Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser iii is a monumental artifact from the height of the Assyrian Empire, erected in bc 827 during the reign of King Shalmaneser iii [17], who ruled from bc 858 to 824. It was unearthed in 1846 by British archaeologist Austen Henry Layard during his excavation of Nimrud—the ancient Assyrian capital situated on the Tigris River, approximately thirty kilometers southeast of modern-day Mosul, Iraq.

The obelisk is made of black limestone and stands just under two meters tall. Its surfaces are richly carved in high relief, depicting a series of triumphal scenes that chronicle the king’s military campaigns and the tribute he received from vassal states. These tributes include exotic animals such as monkeys, elephants, camels, and rhinoceroses, as well as precious metals, timber, and ivory, showcasing both the wealth of the empire and the extent of its influence.

One of the most remarkable scenes on the obelisk features the earliest known pictorial representation of an Israelite: King Jehu of Israel, who is shown prostrating before the Assyrian monarch. This depiction is especially significant as it confirms a biblical figure in a contemporaneous historical context. The accompanying inscription identifies Jehu as offering tribute to Shalmaneser iii, aligning with the political dynamics described in the Hebrew Scriptures.

The biblical narrative of Jehu’s rise to power is found in 2 Kings 9:1–3, which describes the divine commissioning of Jehu as king of Israel:

Elisha the prophet summoned one of the sons of the prophets and said to him, “Gird up your loins and carry this flask of oil to Ramoth-gilead. When you arrive there, search for Jehu, the son of Jehoshaphat, the son of Nimshi. Go to him, and separate him from his companions, bringing him to an inner chamber. Take the flask of oil and pour it on his head, saying, ‘Thus says the Lord: I have anointed you as king over Israel.’ Then open the door and flee, do not wait around.

Beyond the well-documented discoveries at major excavation sites, an abundance of artifacts spanning various historical periods has been uncovered throughout the ancient Near East. These findings collectively provide a wealth of external corroboration for numerous individuals, cities, and episodes recorded in the Old Testament[18].

Among the most compelling discoveries are those linked to notable biblical figures, such as:

• The Prophet Balaam, mentioned in Numbers 22, whose name appears in an inscription known as the Deir ‘Alla Inscription, referencing visions and divine communication—an extraordinary parallel to the biblical narrative.
• Eber, the patriarch and descendant of Shem, referenced in Genesis 11:15–17, from whom the term “Hebrew” is believed to derive.
• Goliath of Gath, the famed Philistine warrior slain by David, as described in 1 Samuel 17:4–23 and 21:9. The city of Gath, his birthplace, has yielded significant Philistine artifacts and was a major urban center during the Iron Age (2 Kings 12:18).
• Hananiah, the prophet who opposed Jeremiah, mentioned in Jeremiah 28, a figure entwined in prophetic controversy during Judah’s final days.
• Gemariah, the son of Shaphan the scribe, who is cited in Jeremiah 36:10 as facilitating the public reading of Jeremiah’s scroll in the temple.
• Jaazaniah, a military leader during the final years of the Kingdom of Judah (2 Kings 25:23), whose name appears on a seal impression found during excavations.
• The fortified cities of Lachish and Azekah, identified in Jeremiah 34:7 as the last strongholds to resist King Nebuchadnezzar ii of Babylon before the fall of Jerusalem. Both sites have been extensively excavated, revealing siege ramparts, correspondence tablets (Lachish Letters), and destruction layers consistent with Babylonian conquest.
• Nineveh, the capital of the Assyrian Empire and the setting for the prophetic mission of Jonah (Jonah 1:1), whose vast ruins have revealed palatial reliefs, libraries, and inscriptions affirming its grandeur and significance.
• Belshazzar (Baltasar), identified in Daniel 5 as the last king of Babylon. While long disputed, his historicity was later confirmed through Babylonian texts identifying him as the co-regent and son of Nabonidus, Babylon’s final official monarch.

The proof of the internal evidence of the Old and New Testaments. While it is true that variations exist among biblical manuscripts, such differences are neither surprising nor problematic when we consider the historical context of their transmission. These texts were hand-copied over centuries, and as with any manual reproduction process, copying errors inevitably crept in, often propagating through subsequent copies and gradually diverging from the original. Even in our modern era of printed texts, typographical errors remain common and are typically corrected in later editions.

Recognizing this, scholars have developed the rigorous discipline of textual criticism—a field dedicated to reconstructing the original text by comparing and evaluating the multitude of surviving manuscripts. Through this method, scholars can identify, isolate, and correct errors, assigning greater or lesser textual value to individual manuscripts based on the frequency, type, and severity of deviations they exhibit.

Most manuscript discrepancies fall under the category of unintentional errors. These often include:

• Confusion of similar-sounding words, much like “affect” and “effect” in English. In Koine Greek, the language of the New Testament, homophones such as echoomen (“have”) and echomen (“let us have”) illustrate the same vulnerability.
• Omissions, typically resulting from a scribe inadvertently skipping lines—especially when two lines ended in similar words or phrases.
• Additions, often repetitions caused by momentary loss of the scribe’s place in the text.

Another common source of confusion came from the practice of marginal notations. Scribes sometimes added explanatory notes or comments in the margins. Over time, as manuscripts were copied and recopied, these notes were occasionally misunderstood as part of the original text and incorporated into the main body, further contributing to textual variation.

Nevertheless, the vast number of extant biblical manuscripts enables scholars to detect these errors with relative ease. As a result, such unintentional variants rarely obscure the meaning of the text and do not significantly compromise its integrity.

More challenging for textual critics is intentional changes—modifications made deliberately by scribes who believed they were correcting what they perceived to be mistakes. In these cases, scholars must attempt to discern the motivations behind the alteration.

A well-known example appears in John 7:39. In early and respected manuscripts such as the Codex Alexandrinus, Codex Vaticanus, and Codex Sinaiticus, the text reads: “for the Spirit was not yet.” This phrasing may have troubled some scribes, potentially suggesting that the Holy Spirit did not exist at that time. As a result, some copyists added the word “given”, rendering it: “for the Spirit had not yet been given.” Others added “Holy”, modifying the phrase to “Holy Spirit” for theological clarity.

Such editorial insertions reflect the scribes’ efforts to protect the meaning or doctrinal integrity of the text, even if they inadvertently obscured the original wording.

Contrary to popular skepticism, the core message of the Bible has not been corrupted over time. Despite the centuries that separate modern readers from the original manuscripts, the sheer volume of available copies—thousands for the New Testament alone—allows scholars to reconstruct the original with exceptional accuracy.

We can affirm with confidence that the Old Testament, as it exists today, reflects the same text preserved since at least the seventh century bc, and that the New Testament in our possession is virtually identical to what existed in ad 80. No other ancient document possesses greater textual attestation than the Bible, making it the most extensively documented literary work of antiquity.

[1]The National Archives and Records Administration (nara) is an independent agency of the United States federal government responsible for preserving and documenting government and historical records.

[2]Science that studies history.

[3]Paleography is the science responsible for deciphering ancient writings and studying their evolution, in addition to dating, locating, and classifying the various written records it examines.

[4]Geoffrey Chaucer (1340s – October 25, 1400) was an English poet, author, and civil servant, best known for The Canterbury Tales. He is often referred to as the “father of English literature” or, alternatively, the “father of English poetry.”

[5]Translator’s Note: The original version used El Ingenioso Hidalgo Don Quijote de la Mancha as an example to illustrate the evolution of language.

[6]The Vulgate is a translation of the Hebrew and Greek Bible into Latin.

[7]Eusebius Hieronymus (c. 340, Stridon, Dalmatia – September 30, 420, Bethlehem), commonly known as Saint Jerome—also referred to as Jerome of Stridon or simply Jerome—was a Christian scholar and theologian. At the request of Pope Damasus i, he translated the Bible into Latin, a version later known as the Vulgate. Pope Damasus had previously convened the Council of Rome in 382 to establish the first canon of biblical books. Saint Jerome is recognized as a Father of the Church and is one of the four great Latin Fathers.

[8]The first complete Bible in English was published abroad—most likely in Antwerp—in 1535. It was translated by Myles Coverdale (1488–1569), an Augustinian friar from Yorkshire educated at Cambridge, who claimed to have “faithfully and truly translated [it] out of Douche [German] and Latin into English.” Working independently, Coverdale revised William Tyndale’s New Testament and drew upon several sources for his translation, including Martin Luther’s German Bible, the Zürich Bible, the Latin Vulgate, and another Latin translation of the Hebrew Old Testament.

[9]First bishop of Jerusalem, stoned to death in ad 62.

[10]See https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00206814.2011.639996

[11]There are two known versions of the Talmud: the Jerusalem Talmud (Talmud Yerushalmi), composed in the Roman province of Philistia, and the Babylonian Talmud (Talmud Bavli), written in the Babylonian region of Mesopotamia. Both versions were developed over several centuries by successive generations of scholars from numerous rabbinical academies established since antiquity.

[12]You can view these scrolls digitally and in extraordinary resolution at: http://dss.collections.imj.org.il/

[13]Known as Hellenistic Jews.

[14]The sling is one of humanity’s oldest weapons. It consists of two cords or straps attached to a central, flexible pouch that holds a projectile. To use it, the sling is grasped by the ends and swung in a circular motion to build momentum; then, one of the cords is released, launching the projectile at high speed. This allows the projectile to travel great distances with significant impact force. Slings have traditionally been made from a variety of materials, including leather, textile fibers, tendons, and horsehair. The projectiles themselves vary and may include rounded or shaped natural stones, sun-dried or baked clay, and even molded lead.

[15]Solomon was the second son born from the union of King David and Bathsheba.

[16]His grave can be visited today.

[17]Son and successor of Ashurnasirpal ii.

[18]See The Archeology of Ancient Israel, by Amnon Ben-Tor.