The apostle Paul met Timothy during his second missionary journey to the city of Lystra, located in present-day Turkey. Their relationship quickly deepened into one of companionship and spiritual kinship, with Timothy eventually becoming one of Paul’s most trusted allies. Paul would later write two epistles addressed specifically to Timothy, offering both pastoral guidance and personal encouragement. In his second letter, Paul reminds Timothy of the profound importance and role of Scripture:
But as for you, stand by what you have learned and firmly believed, because you know from whom you have learned it. Gain Wisdom from the Inspired Scriptures. Also remember that from the time you were a child you have known the sacred Scriptures. From these you can acquire the wisdom that will lead you to salvation through faith in Christ Jesus. All Scripture is inspired by God and is useful for teaching, for refutation, for correction, and for training in uprightness, so that the man of God may be proficient and equipped for good work of every kind. (2 Timothy 3:14-17)
In this passage, Paul emphasizes that the Bible’s central purpose is spiritual: to impart wisdom, lead to salvation, and provide instruction for righteous living. It is not intended as a manual of scientific explanation. However, that does not mean the Bible is scientifically ignorant or irrelevant. In fact, it contains certain insights and truths that only much later were validated by science, prompting reflection on the depth and foresight of its content.
The biblical authors wrote within their own historical, cultural, and linguistic context. They addressed specific audiences, often limited to their immediate geographical regions and eras, and conveyed divine truths using the tools available to them—their own languages, literary styles, and rhetorical traditions. These authors did not aim to write textbooks on cosmology, biology, or geology; instead, they sought to express theological and moral truths through narrative, poetry, wisdom literature, prophecy, and epistle.
A useful analogy illustrates the nuance of biblical language: imagine yourself sitting peacefully in the passenger seat of a car, enjoying a scenic view under the sun. The calm of the moment might lull you into a gentle daydream. Suddenly, the driver brakes, makes a sharp turn, and accelerates—the abrupt shift demands your full attention. Similarly, figures of speech in Scripture are employed to grab the reader’s attention, to create impact, or to draw focus to a key moment or idea.
The Bible makes frequent and masterful use of such rhetorical devices to bring the narrative to life. There are over two hundred figures of speech used across its texts, but among the most prevalent are: Simile[1], Metaphor[2], Allegory[3], Paradox[4], Irony[5], Personification[6], Anthropomorphism[7], Anthropopathy[8], Hyperbole[9], Synecdoche[10] and Euphemism[11].
Each of these devices serves a communicative purpose, often aiming to illuminate deeper meaning or evoke emotional resonance. Their use, however, demands that the reader approach Scripture with discernment and care. Failure to distinguish between literal description and figurative language may lead to misinterpretation or confusion. For example, taking anthropomorphic depictions of God too literally can obscure the transcendent nature that Scripture simultaneously affirms.
In the second century, the Greco-Roman mathematician and astronomer Claudius Ptolemy[12] introduced one of antiquity’s most influential astronomical treatises: The Almagest. In this seminal work, Ptolemy articulated and formalized the geocentric model of the universe—a view that had earlier roots in the philosophies of Plato and Aristotle. According to this model, Earth stood motionless at the center of the cosmos, and all celestial bodies—including the sun, moon, planets, and fixed stars—revolved around it in concentric spheres.
This Earth-centered cosmology was not merely a scientific hypothesis; it soon acquired strong philosophical and theological endorsement, especially from religious authorities who interpreted it as consistent with Scripture. A frequently cited passage was Psalm 93:1–2, which reads:
The Lord is King, adorned in splendor; the Lord has clothed and girded himself with strength. He has made the world firm, never to be moved.
The geocentric model, which placed Earth immobile at the center of the universe, was upheld by the Church for many centuries, due to a literal interpretation of scriptural texts such as Psalm 93:1–2. This view remained dominant until 1532, when Nicolaus Copernicus proposed his revolutionary heliocentric theory, asserting that the Earth is in motion, orbiting around a stationary sun.
While the biblical text itself was never in error, the longstanding misinterpretation of metaphorical language was gradually corrected considering new scientific understanding. The psalmist’s statement— “He has made the world firm, never to be moved”—was not a commentary on the Earth’s physical motion, but rather a metaphorical affirmation of God’s sovereign power and stability in creation. It was a poetic expression meant to convey the unshakable nature of God’s rule, not a scientific proposition about planetary mechanics.
This example underscores the importance of distinguishing between literal and figurative language when reading the Bible. Many scriptural passages make use of rhetorical devices—such as metaphor, hyperbole, personification, and allegory—to convey spiritual truths and emotional depth. Failing to recognize these literary tools can lead to misunderstandings, especially when theological reflection intersects with scientific discovery.
With this important principle in mind—namely, that not all passages are meant to be interpreted literally—we may now turn our attention to a selection of scientific insights contained within the Bible.
Imagine yourself living in ancient Israel during the time of King David[13], gazing up at the night sky. Without the aid of telescopes or advanced instruments, all you would see are thousands of twinkling lights, some brighter than others, scattered across the vast canopy of stars. Could you, with the naked eye alone, confidently declare that each star is fundamentally unique—not merely in brightness or position, but in its very nature? From a purely human perspective of the era, such a claim would be impossible to verify.
And yet, King David, writing over 3,000 years ago, expressed a remarkable insight that resonates with what modern science would only later confirm. In Psalm 147:4, he writes: “He fixes the number of the stars and assigns a name to each.”
This verse suggests not only an awareness of the stars’ individual identity, but also an astonishing sense of their divine distinctiveness—each one counted, named, and known by the Creator.
Centuries later, the Apostle Paul, in 1 Corinthians 15:41, echoes this same notion: “The sun has a splendor of its own, the moon another splendor, and the stars still another. Indeed, the stars differ among themselves in splendor.”
Paul not only recognizes the varying brightness of celestial bodies but goes further in affirming that no two stars are alike in glory, hinting at their intrinsic diversity.
These scriptural observations, which may have seemed poetic or metaphorical at the time, gained empirical validation in the 19th century through the invention of the spectroscope by Joseph von Fraunhofer[14], a German physicist, optician, and astronomer. In 1814, Fraunhofer developed the first spectroscope capable of analyzing the spectral lines of starlight—a breakthrough that revolutionized the field of astronomy.
Through spectroscopy, scientists discovered that each star emits a unique pattern of absorption lines—its spectral “signature”—based on its elemental composition, temperature, and motion. No two stars are identical in their spectra, confirming that each one is indeed distinct, much like a cosmic fingerprint.
To continue with the theme of the stars, would you be willing to assert that their quantity is infinite? Since your eyes can observe a significant number, it would be reasonable to assume you might attempt an estimate. You may suggest there are a thousand, ten thousand, one hundred thousand, or even a million. But would you describe them as infinite?
Just over 2,500 years ago, the prophet Jeremiah made the following statement:
The word of the Lord came to Jeremiah: Thus says the Lord: […] I will make the descendants of David my servant and the Levites who minister before me as countless as the stars in the sky and as measureless as the sand on the seashore. (Jeremiah 33:19-22)
Until December 20, 1923, it was widely believed that the Milky Way constituted the entirety of the universe, and that every luminous point in the night sky was simply a stellar object within it. On that day, astronomer Edwin Powell Hubble, observing from the Mount Wilson Observatory in California, made a groundbreaking discovery: one of those points of light—long assumed to be a star—was another galaxy, containing millions of stars.
He observed a second such point and confirmed the same result, then repeated the process with additional points, each time discovering yet another galaxy. Hubble’s findings dramatically expanded our understanding of the universe over the following years.
Today, we know that the universe contains not only billions of galaxies, but also an effectively uncountable number of stars—a reality far beyond anything previously imagined.
In Hinduism, our planet is portrayed as a vast serpent that bites its own tail—a clear allusion to the cyclical nature of the universe. In some versions of the tradition, this serpent is suspended in a vacuum, encircling a sea of tranquility composed of milk. Within this cosmic ocean swims a turtle, symbolizing creative power. On the turtle’s back stand three elephants, each supporting a world. The lower world is associated with demons and hell, the upper world with gods and prosperity, and the intermediate world, occupied by humans, represents our planet.
The ancient Greeks held a different but equally imaginative cosmology. They believed the Earth was a massive entity supported by columns resting on the shoulders of the Titan Atlas. According to Greek mythology, Atlas had led the Titan rebellion against the Olympian gods—a conflict known as the Titanomachy. As punishment for his defeat, Zeus condemned Atlas to carry the weight of the Earth on his back for eternity.
Maheo, the Great Spirit of the Cheyenne—one of the principal Indigenous peoples of North America—commanded the turtle to bear the world on its shell. This choice symbolized the turtle’s strength and longevity[15], traits deeply revered in their tradition.
In contrast to these mythological depictions, the Bible presents a remarkably different view. The Earth does not rest on any animal or physical support but is described as suspended freely in space. This concept is found in the book of Job, which is believed to have been written between the 10th and 8th centuries bc:
He stretches out the North above the void and suspends the earth on nothingness. He encloses the waters in dense clouds, yet the clouds are not torn asunder under their weight. He veils the face of the full moon, spreading his clouds beneath it. “He has established the horizon on the surface of the waters as the boundary between light and darkness. (Job 26:7-10)
A clear reference to the roundness of the Earth is made by the prophet Isaiah in his description of Creation: “God sits enthroned above the dome of the earth.” (Isaiah 40:22)
This imagery suggests a spherical or curved Earth, long before such a concept was widely accepted in science.
Furthermore, the evangelist Luke describes the second coming of Jesus as a sudden and instantaneous global event. His account implicitly acknowledges that day and night occur simultaneously on Earth—a phenomenon only possible on a rotating, spherical planet. Luke writes:
I tell you, on that night two people will be in one bed. One will be taken and the other will be left. And there will be two women grinding grain together. One will be taken and the other will be left. Two men will be out in the field. One will be taken and the other will be left. (Luke 17:34-36)
This was scientifically verified fifteen centuries later, when renowned navigators such as Christopher Columbus, Vasco da Gama, Pedro Álvarez Cabral, Juan de la Cosa, Bartolomé Díaz, Diego García de Moguer, Ferdinand Magellan, Andrés de Urdaneta, Diego de Almagro, Francisco Pizarro, Francisco de Orellana, and Hernán Cortés circumnavigated and mapped the Earth. Through their voyages, they confirmed that the Earth is suspended in space and spherical in shape.
In the first chapter, I discussed the second law of thermodynamics, also known as the law of entropy, which asserts that matter deteriorates over time. This implies that, given enough time, all matters will decay and vanish. In 1824, the French engineer Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot published his work Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire and on Machines Fitted to Develop That Power—the first formal articulation of this principle. The theory continued to evolve until the early 20th century, when Albert Einstein introduced his work on Special Relativity, expanding our understanding of energy, matter, and time.
Yet, the Bible had already conveyed the principle of universal decay. The prophet Isaiah and King David both warned of the Earth’s inevitable erosion, expressing a truth that would not be fully grasped for over two millennia.
Raise your eyes to the heavens and gaze down on the earth below. For the heavens will vanish like smoke, and the earth will wear out like a garment as its inhabitants die like flies. But my salvation will be everlasting and my justice will never cease. (Isaiah 51:6)
Long ago you laid the foundations of the earth, and the heavens are the work of your hands. They will pass away but you endure; they will all wear out like a garment. You will change them like clothing, and they will perish. (Psalms 102:26-27)
In the 1930s, James Jeans, an English physicist, mathematician, and astronomer, proposed the Steady State Hypothesis. This theory suggested that matter was being continuously created to account for certain cosmological phenomena that could not be explained by existing models at the time. However, this idea directly contradicted the first law of thermodynamics, which states that matter and energy can neither be created nor destroyed.
In contrast, the Bible had long affirmed a completed creation. As written in Genesis 2:1: “Heaven and earth, and everything that is in them, were finished.”
[1]This literary device involves comparing a real concept with an imaginary one that shares a similar quality. Examples of this can be found in Psalm 1:3 and 1 Peter 2:25.
[2]This literary device involves identifying a real concept with an imaginary one based on a shared similarity. Examples of this can be found in Isaiah 40:6, 1 Peter 1:24, Psalm 23:1, Matthew 5:13, and Matthew 26:26.
[3]This literary device consists of a series of metaphors presented in succession, which together evoke a more complex or layered idea. Examples can be found in Galatians 4, Psalm 80, Isaiah 5, and Matthew 12:43–45.
[4]This literary device involves combining two opposing or seemingly contradictory ideas that, when considered together, may reveal a deeper or hidden truth. Examples can be found in Matthew 16:25 and 1 Timothy 5:6.
[5]This literary device involves implying the opposite of what is stated, often for rhetorical or humorous effect. Examples can be found in Job 12:2, 1 Kings 18:27, and Luke 13:33.
[6]This literary device involves attributing human qualities or actions to animals, objects, or abstract ideas. Examples can be found in Matthew 6:24 and Judges 5:20.
[7]This literary device involves attributing human form or human characteristics to God. Examples can be found in Exodus 33:11, Job 34:21, James 5:4, and Isaiah 30:27.
[8]This literary device involves attributing human emotions or feelings to God. Examples can be found in Genesis 6:6 and Exodus 20:5.
[9]This literary device involves exaggerating or diminishing an aspect or characteristic of something to an extreme degree. Examples can be found in Exodus 8:17, Deuteronomy 1:28, and Judges 20:16.
[10]This literary device involves referring to a part to represent the whole, or the whole to represent a part. Examples can be found in Matthew 6:11 and Proverbs 22:9.
[11]This literary device involves replacing a harsh or unpleasant word or expression with one that has softer or more agreeable connotations. Examples can be found in John 3:16 and Revelation 22:18.
[12]Claudius Ptolemy (c. ad 100 – c. 170), born in Ptolemaida Hermia and later based in Canopus, was a Greek astronomer, astrologer, geographer, mathematician, and possibly a chemist. His works had a profound influence on science and thought throughout antiquity and the Middle Ages.
[13]He lived between the years bc 1040 and 966.
[14]Joseph von Fraunhofer (Straubing, March 6, 1787 – Munich, June 7, 1826) was a German astronomer, optician, and physicist. He is regarded as one of the founders of spectrometry as a scientific discipline.
[15]The story is found in Legends of the North American Indians, by Francisco Caudet Yarza.
